18. The Cultural Background of early Christianity

18.1 How the Greeks Promoted the Blending of Religions

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           The Hellenistic era began at about 331 BCE when Alexander the Great conquered Judea and soon after that, Egypt and the ancient Near East and Middle East. Alexander was a student of Aristotle, who was a student of Plato. Alexander was the cause for the spread of Plato’s ideas in the nations he conquered. One of his goals was to unite the cultures of those nations so as to integrate his empire. For this reason he introduced the Greek learning and culture to the nations he conquered, and encouraged the blending of the Greek culture with the cultures of those nations. He called his plan “omonia,” which means “likemindedness.” The successors of Alexander followed his policy of peaceful syncretism. They encouraged religions and religious beliefs to mix to bring the various ethnic cultures of the empire into unity and harmony. Many think that the Greek king of Egypt Ptolemy I (323-285 BCE) created the god Sarapis with the help of the Egyptian priest Manetho and the Greek priest Timotheus of Eleusis.   (Eleusis was the birthplace and center of the Eleusinian mystery religion.) This merging served the social and political unification of the Greeks of Egypt and the Egyptians. It was King Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-246 BCE) who established the worship of the god Sarapis (or Serapis). Sarapis became identified with the Egyptian god Osiris.
            In this spirit of syncretism the Canaanite god Baal, the Egyptian god Amon, and the Persian god Ahura Mazda became identified with Zeus or Jupiter (the Roman name for Zeus). The Canaanite goddess Astarte (or Ashtoreth) and the Persian goddess Anahita (or Anaitis) became identified with the Greek goddess Aphrodite, or Venus (the Roman name of Aphrodite). The Egyptian goddess Isis became identified with the earth-goddess Demeter or Ceres (the Roman name for Demeter) and Artemis of Ephesus. The Egyptian god Horus became identified with the Greek gods Apollo and Hermes. There was a general acceptance of all gods. Gods and goddesses of various nations and religions dwelled side by side in harmony. The eastern Mediterranean became a religious melting pot. New religions appeared. They were put together with motifs and beliefs of existing religions. For example, the devotees of the religion of Isis borrowed from the Dionysians, the story of Dionysus (the story of how the Titans tore apart the baby god Dionysus and how the goddess Rhea gathered the limbs of the infant and resurrected him) and with some adaptations applied it to their god Horus. Anyone with power or credibility could create a religion. A vast number of cults sprouted throughout the Mediterranean. Christianity was conceived in such an environment. Like other new religions, it was put together with motifs and beliefs of existing religions: Judaism and the Greek mystery religions. One of the reasons for the successful spread of Christianity is the fact that it inherited beliefs from the established religions of the Roman empire. Another reason is that during that time people welcomed new religions and accepted all gods.

18.2 How the Greek Culture Transformed Palestinian Judaism

            The Greeks influenced the people of Palestine even before the Hellenistic era. Excavations have shown that during the 5th and 4th centuries BCE Greek art was highly prized in Palestine. All important excavations of 5th century sites have yielded Greek pottery and other Greek objects. Wealthy Phoenicians buried their dead in marble sarcophagi that had been carved by Greek craftsmen. The Greeks invented money: coins. Sometime before 450 BCE the Persians abandoned their means of exchange (be precious metals) and adopted the Attic standard of making coins. By the middle of the fourth century the Persian satraps and local rulers of Cilicia, Syria, and Palestine produced coins that imitated the Greek coins. Judea received permission to strike its own silver coins, which were imitations of Attic coins. The biblical archaeologist Professor William Albright wrote that Alexander’s conquest of Palestine in 331 BCE only intensified and organized the Hellenistic movement that was already well under way. This Hellenistic movement transformed Judaism and eventually brought about Christianity.
            By the middle of the 3rd century BCE the city of Marisa (or Mareshah, located about 25 miles southwest of Jerusalem) was built like a well-planned Greek city. The biblical archaeologist Professor George Ernest Wright wrote, “Marisa is important ... because it is a vivid illustration of the process of Hellenization which was then going on throughout Syria, Palestine and lower Egypt {northern Egypt}.” 
            In 198 BCE the Greek King Antiochus III (247-187 BCE) of the Syrian Seleucid dynasty conquered Palestine and treated the Jews favorably. He granted them a charter to govern themselves by their own constitution, the Pentateuch (the Torah). After his reign some Jews learned Greek and became lovers of the Greek culture. They were called Hellenists. They grew in numbers and in power. In Jerusalem, in 175 BCE, they took control of the office of the high priest. A staunch Hellenist Jew named Jason became the high priest from 175 to 172 BCE. His name originally was Jesus, but because of his love for the Greek culture he changed it to Jason. He transformed Jerusalem into a Greek city, with Greek schools and gymnasiums where traditionally young athletes exercised nude (a Greek athletic practice). Even some of the young priests at Jerusalem took up the Greek language, athletic sports, and manner of dress: “... he {Jason} founded a gymnasium right under the citadel, and he induced the noblest of the young men to wear the Greek hat. There was ... an extreme of Hellenization and increase in the adoption of foreign ways ...” (2 Maccabees 4:12-13 RSV) During the hey-day of Greek influence the priests of the Jerusalem temple would sometimes leave the sacrifices half-burned on the altar to rush off to a stadium to compete in the Greek games: “... the priests were no longer intent upon their service at the altar. Despising the sanctuary and neglecting the sacrifices, they hastened to take part in the unlawful proceedings in the wrestling arena after the call to the discus, disdaining the honors prized by their fathers and putting the highest value upon Greek forms of prestige.” (2 Maccabees 4:14-15 RSV) At about that time the Greek King Antiochus IV Epiphanes (the king of Syria of the Seleucid dynasty) came to Jerusalem: “He was welcomed magnificently by Jason and the city, and ushered in with a blaze of torches and with shouts.” (2 Maccabees 4:22 RSV) Judaism was being transformed by the Greek influence. Several intertestamental books written in that period (Daniel, the Apocrypha, and the Pseudepigrapha) reflect this transformation. These books prepared the way for Christianity.
            The Judaic high priest, Jason, in a gesture of appreciation towards Antiochus, sent money for sacrifices to the Greek god Hercules in the city of Tyre. At that time Hercules was a popular Greek deity in Palestine. This is an important fact, because the story of Jesus was embellished with motifs from the myth of Hercules. (Hercules was born a demi-god, from the union of the god Zeus and the mortal woman Alcmene. After his death, Hercules became a confirmed god.) That the high priest of Judaism sent money for Gentile sacrifices was a result of the Hellenization of Judaism.
            In 172 BCE Menelaus, an extreme Hellenist supplanted Jason by offering Antiochus IV more money for the position of the high priest . Menelaus’ original name was Onias, but, like Jason, because of his love for the Greek culture changed his name to Menelaus. Menelaus and the sons of Tobias went to King Antiochus. According to Josephus, they told the king that “they were desirous to leave the laws of their country {the law of Moses}, and their Jewish way of living, and to follow the king’s laws {i.e. the religion of Dionysus}, and the Greek way of living {i.e. Greek philosophy}.” Antiochus made Menelaus the high priest. In 169 BCE, while Antiochus was campaigning in Egypt, Jason heard a false rumor that Antiochus had died and thus he attempted to regain by force his former position of the high priest. Jason and his supporters conquered Jerusalem, with the exception of the citadel, and murdered many supporters of his rival, the high priest Menelaus: “When a false rumor arose that Antiochus was dead, Jason took no less than a thousand men and suddenly made an assault upon the city. When the troops upon the wall had been forced back and at last the city was being taken, Menelaus took refuge in the citadel.” (2 Maccabees 5:5 RSV) In response to this riot, when Antiochus came back from Egypt in 167 BCE he took Jerusalem by storm and proceeded to enforce the Hellenization of the Jews. He forcefully established the religion of Dionysus: “... king Antiochus wrote to his whole kingdom, that all should be one people, and every one {Jew} should leave his laws {the law of Moses} ... many ... of the Israelites consented to his religion ... For the king had sent letters by messengers to Jerusalem and the cities of Judah that they should ... forbid burnt offerings, and sacrifice {to God} ... set up altars, and groves, and chapels of {Dionysian} idols, and sacrifice swine’s flesh, and unclean beasts: That they should also leave their children uncircumcised ... forget the law {of Moses}, and change all the {religious} ordinances. ... And he appointed inspectors over all the people and commanded the cities of Judah to offer sacrifice, city by city. Many of the people, every one who forsook the law, joined them ...” (1 Maccabees 1:41-49, 51-52 RSV) Many people forsook the law of Moses and joined the mysteries of Dionysus: “... when a festival of Dionysus was celebrated, they were compelled to wear wreathes of ivy and to walk in the procession in honor of Dionysus.” (2 Maccabees 6:7 NRSV) The ivy leaf was the symbol of the god Dionysus. During this procession the devotees of Dionysus wore white garments, which symbolized purity. (White garments, as a symbol of purity, were introduced by the Greeks well before the Hellenistic era and were adopted by Jews and Christians.)
            Josephus wrote, “... there were many Jews who complied with the king’s commands, either voluntarily, or out of fear of the penalty that was announced.” The writer of 1 Maccabees wrote, “... some of the people eagerly went to the king. He authorized them to observe the ordinances of the Gentiles. So they built a gymnasium in Jerusalem, according to Gentile custom, and removed the marks of circumcision, and abandoned the holy covenant. They joined with the Gentiles ...” (1 Maccabees 1:13-15 RSV) Some Jews in Palestine abandoned Judaism voluntarily.
            The writer of 3 Maccabees wrote that Antiochus ordered, “... all Jews will be subjected to a registration ... those who are registered are also to be branded on their bodies by fire with the ivy-leaf symbol of Dionysus  ... ‘any of them who prefer to join those who have been initiated into the mysteries {of Dionysus}, they will have equal citizenship with the Alexandrians.’  Now some ... readily gave themselves up {to join the mysteries of Dionysus}, since they expected to enhance their reputation by their future association with the king.” (3 Maccabees 2:28-31 RSV) These Hellenist Jews, who voluntarily joined the mysteries of Dionysus and abandoned circumcision and the law of Moses, prepared the way for the Hellenist Christians (like Paul, who, abandoned circumcision and the law of Moses). The movement of the Hellenist Jews set the foundations of Gentile Christianity (later Christianity, which is different from Jewish Christianity, which is the earliest Christianity). As we will examine, Gentile Christianity was to a considerable degree a mystery religion.
            The mysteries of Dionysus were practiced in Decapolis: “... a decree was issued to the neighboring Greek cities {Decapolis}, that they should adopt the same policy toward the Jews and make them partake of the {Gentile} sacrifices ...” (2 Maccabees 6:8 RSV) Decapolis was a group of ten cities (as the name implies), most of them on the east side of the Jordan river. The cities of the Decapolis developed a rich Hellenistic culture. Mark mentions that Jesus passed through that territory: “he came to the sea of Galilee, through the midst of the coasts of Decapolis.” (Mark 7:31 KJV) It was in that territory where Jesus, allegedly, expelled evil spirits out of a man and sent them into a herd of about 2,000 swine. Swine were used for Dionysian sacrifices and were eaten by the Dionysians. This implies that during the time of Jesus, the mysteries of Dionysus were practiced in Decapolis.
            Whether voluntarily or involuntarily, all Palestinian Jews became familiar with the mysteries of Dionysus. This is an important fact in the study of the origins of Christianity, because Dionysus was a savior god who, like Jesus, died and rose from the dead. The Dionysians believed in rewards in Heaven and punishments in Hell. They believed in salvation through repentance and baptism for the remission of sins. They practiced the rituals of communion and baptism . Therefore, the Hellenist Jews of Palestine who joined the religion of Dionysus were baptized for the remission of sins. The Dionysians and the Hellenist Jews, who joined the Dionysians, influenced the Essenes, who adopted baptism as part of their initiation ritual and later, influenced John the Baptist to baptize. Archaeological excavations show that at about that time (the middle of the 2nd century BCE) some Jews built ritual baths at Gezer. Towards the end of the 2nd century and the beginning of the 1st century BCE the Essenes built more ritual baths at Qumran,  the Essene headquarters. L. I. Levine wrote, “That this type of installation was revolutionary in Israel is confirmed by the fact that no such ritual baths have been found throughout the biblical or early Second Temple period.”
            Antiochus’ policy of forcing the religion of Dionysus on the Jews brought about an adverse reaction. In 167 or 166 BCE a conservative Judaist, a Zadokite priest named Mattathias and his sons started a revolt against Antiochus and against the Hellenist Jews. Mattathias and his sons were supported  by a group called “Hasidim.” When Mattathias died (166-165 BCE) his son Judas Maccabeus took over the leadership of the Jewish revolt. At that time (in 165 BCE), Antiochus was engaged in waging war in Armenia. He sent his generals to quash the revolt. Judas Maccabeus defeated them. In late 164 BCE Antiochus died in Persia and Judas managed to free most of Judea. In December 164, Judas was able to tear down the altar of Zeus that Antiochus had set up at the temple (the “abomination of desolation” alluded to in Daniel 11:31 and 12:11; and Mark 13:14).
            There was a brief revival of traditional Judaism. But after Judas’ death (160 BCE) Greek influence on Judaism began to re-emerge. Josephus wrote, “But after he {Judas Maccabeus} was dead, all the wicked, and those that violated the laws of their forefathers {the law of Moses}, sprang up again in Judaea ...” More than a century later, under the reign of King Herod the Great (he ruled Judea from 37 to 4 BCE), Hellenism reached another high. Josephus wrote, “Herod revolted from the {religious} laws of his country, and corrupted their ancient character, by the introduction of foreign practices ... he became guilty of great wickedness ... those religious practices {the requirements of the law of Moses} that used to lead the multitude {of Jews} to piety, were now neglected.” According to this citation, at the time of Herod the Great, some Jews neglected the law of Moses. Herod built a Greek theater, an amphitheater, and a hippodrome (a chariot racing stadium) near Jerusalem. The 192nd Olympiad was held in Samaria, and Herod offered the grand prizes. He was a great believer in the Greek culture. His reign marked the victory of Hellenism.
            After Herod, Tiberius Caesar Augustus (14-37 CE) advanced Hellenism. Philo of Alexandria wrote, “This is he who increased Greece by many Greeces, and who Hellenized the regions of the barbarians ...”  In Tiberius’ reign the Greek mystery religions became widespread. Josephus mentions that there was a temple to the Greek god Apollo in Gaza (a city close to the southern coast of Israel). (Apollo was identified with the Egyptian god Horus, who was the mediator god in the mystery religion of Isis. Horus was part of the trinity of Osiris, Isis, Horus.) Josephus also mentions that Herod built a temple in Sebaste  (a city of Samaria), a temple in Caesarea, and a temple in Panium, all of which were dedicated to Caesar Augustus Octavianus, who was worshipped as a god. Palestine was inundated with the temples and the culture of the Greeks and the Romans (who imitated the Greeks).
            However, despite the rampant Hellenism, there was always a small but strong conservative counter-current to Greek influence. The conservative Hasidim who took part in the Maccabean revolt kept the flame of traditional Judaism burning. The Sadducees, too, kept the “old time religion,” pre-exilic Judaism, alive. They were unpopular because they did not jump on the bandwagon of Hellenism. They did not adopt the popular beliefs of eternal life, rewards in Heaven, and salvation from Hell. Unlike the Sadducees, the Pharisees were popular and great in numbers because they accepted several Greek beliefs.
            During the Hellenistic era most Palestinian Jews did not speak their mother language. They spoke Aramaic. With the rise of Hellenism, many of them learned to speak Greek. The Greek speaking Jews were more educated than the ones who spoke Aramaic. The Greek speaking Jews often spoke Aramaic and Hebrew. Hebrew was persevered as a sacred language in Jerusalem. Hebrew was associated with Judaism. During the time of Jesus, the Hebrew Old Testament was read aloud in the temple and in the synagogues and then it was translated into Aramaic so that the main population who spoke Aramaic could understand it.
            The educated Jews wrote in Greek. For example, the historian Josephus, who was a Palestinian Hellenist Jew, wrote in Greek. His writings contain Greek thinking. He blended Judaism with Hellenism. He portrayed Moses as the divine man of Greek culture as well as the Israelite man of God. He believed that the Greek philosophers had the same ideas about God as Moses. Josephus (he wrote towards the end of the 1st century CE) considered Pythagoras and Plato as somewhat inspired by God. He interpreted the Old Testament using the philosophical ideas and the allegorical methods of the Greeks. Therefore, he believed that the Old Testament contained philosophy: “I have translated the Antiquities out of our sacred books {the Old Testament} ... and have studied the philosophy that is contained in those writings.” Moved by his love for Hellenism, Josephus wrote that Hercules married the granddaughter of Abraham.
            Josephus boasted, “The things that foreigners, when they observe such festivals, are not able to observe for a period of a few days, and call them Mysteries and Solemn ceremonies, we {Jews} observe with great pleasure and unfaltering resolution during our whole lives.”  He boasted that the Jews observed “the things foreigners call mysteries and Solemn ceremonies” better than the Gentiles. This statement indicates that by the time of Josephus (towards the end of the 1st century CE) Judaism became similar in some ways to the Greek mystery religions.
            The Hellenist Jews read Plato’s writings. They read in the Republic about the resurrection of Er. They learned about the Greek heroes and demi-gods like Pollux, Theseus, and Orpheus, who went to Hades and came back. Some read the writings of Theocritus (born ca. 300 BCE and died 260 BCE), who wrote about the resurrection of the god-man Adonis: “... Half-god, half-man! Adonis, you alone crossed back {from Hades} to this world over {the River} Acheron {the river of the Underworld}.” Others heard the myth of Alcestis. How Alcestis consented to die in place of Admetus. How she was rescued from death by the god-man Heracles or Hercules (the Roman name for Heracles), who successfully wrestled with Death at her grave. The death and resurrection of Alcestis was the subject of many ancient relieves and vase paintings and the subject of Euripides' play “Alcestis.” Hellenist Jews heard the story about the death and resurrection of the god Dionysus. Many harmonized Plato’s writings with the Old Testament. They believed that Plato was inspired by God. As mentioned earlier, some of them exercised nude in the Greek gymnasiums and removed the signs of circumcision (abandoned circumcision). It is no wonder that a few decades later Paul preached: “Behold, I Paul say to you, that if you be circumcised, Christ will profit you nothing. For I testify again to every man that is circumcised, that he is a debtor to do the whole law. Christ is become of no effect to you, whosoever of you are justified by the law; you are fallen from grace {i.e. God has no grace for you}.” (Galatians 5:2-4 KJV) Paul was a Hellenist Jew. He was not the first Jew to abandon circumcision and the law.

How the Greeks Transformed the Beliefs of the Essenes

            The study of the Essene beliefs is important because the first followers of Jesus were Essenes (and Pharisees). Several books written in Greek were discovered in Qumran: some apocryphal books, some fragments of 1 Enoch, a fragment of Numbers, a Greek manuscript of Exodus, and one manuscript of Leviticus. 
            The Essenes of Qumran probably had contacts with the Hellenist Jews of Alexandria. Probably for this reason, the Hebrew manuscript of Jeremiah found at Qumran agrees with the Jeremiah of the Septuagint (the Bible of the Alexandrian Hellenist Jews). Also, the non-canonical psalm 151, which was part of the Septuagint, was found in the Dead Sea Psalms Scroll.  Tobit was part of the Septuagint. One Hebrew and four Aramaic copies of Tobit were discovered in Cave 4 at Qumran. Another Greek book that links Qumran to Alexandria is the Brontologion. It exhibits influence from Hermetic literature, which was prevalent in Egypt in the 2nd century BCE. 
            The mystery religion of Dionysus, which was practiced in Palestine, made an impact on the Essenes of Qumran. The Essenes learned about “mysteries” from the Dionysians. Their important teaching was a “mystery.” God revealed this mystery to the Teacher of Righteousness: “... the Teacher of Righteousness whom God caused to know all the mysteries of the words of His servants the prophets.” (1QpHab 7:4-5) “... the Teacher of Righteousness ... the priest to whom God gave in his heart understanding to interpret all the words of His servants the prophets.” (1QpHab 2:3, 6-9) “For you {God} have uncovered my ear to wonderful mysteries.” (1QH 1:22) The Essenes believed that the Old Testament contained mysteries. So did the Hellenist Philo of Alexandria and, later, the Gentile Christians.
            The Essenes adopted the Dionysian ritual of repentance followed by baptizing, as the means for spiritual purification. “... all perverse men who walk in the way of wickedness ... may not enter into the water {to be baptized and} to partake of the pure Meal {the sacred meal} of the saints, for they will not be cleansed {by baptism} unless they have turned from their wickedness {repented}.” (1QS 5:11, 13-14) John the Baptist adopted the ritual of the Essenes. He baptized for the forgiveness of sins: “John did baptize in the wilderness, and preach the baptism of repentance for the remission of sins. ... and were all baptized of him in the river of Jordan, confessing their sins.” (Mark 1:4-5 KJV)
            Josephus wrote, “For their doctrine {the doctrine of the Essenes} is this: that the bodies are corruptible ... but that the souls are immortal and continue forever; and that they {the souls} come out of the most subtile air, and are united to their bodies as to prisons, into which they are drawn by a certain natural enticement ...” The phrase “{the souls} come out of the subtile air and are united with their bodies” indicates that they believed in the pre-existence of the soul. This belief was part of Plato’s teaching. Plato taught that the original abode of the souls were the stars. (As we will examine later, John 9:1-2 and in Hebrews 11:8-10, 13 imply pre-existence of the soul.)
            Josephus described the beliefs of the Essenes. He wrote, “But when they {the souls} are set free from the bonds of the flesh, they then, as released from a long bondage, rejoice and mount upward.” This is spiritual resurrection. The spirit of a righteous person rose from his grave and went upward, to Heaven. This, too, was part of Plato’s beliefs. During the Hellenistic era spiritual resurrection (the spirit rising from the grave and going to Heaven or Paradise) was a common belief of the Greek mystery religions. Josephus continues, “And this {belief of the Essenes} is like the opinions of the Greeks, that good souls have their habitations beyond the ocean, in a region that is neither oppressed with storms of rain or snow, or with intense heat, but that this place is such as is refreshed by the gentle breathing of a west wind, that is perpetually blowing from the ocean {a kind of Paradise}; while they allot to bad souls a dark and tempestuous den, full of never ceasing punishments. And indeed the Greeks seem to have followed the same notion, when they allot the island of the blessed to their brave men, whom they call heroes, and demigods; and to the souls of the wicked, the region of the ungodly, in Hades, where their fables relate that certain persons, such as Sisyphus and Tantalus ... are punished; which is built on the first supposition that souls are immortal. ... These are the divine doctrines of the Essenes about the soul ... bad men ... should suffer eternal punishment after their death.” Josephus compared the Essenes with the Greeks and found their beliefs strikingly similar. However, the Greeks did not “follow the notion” of the Essenes. They had these notions before the Essenes existed. Plato gave extensive descriptions of life after death in Paradise or in Hell. These beliefs do not exist in the Old Testament. The Essenes obtained them from the Greeks (and from the Zoroastrians, who influenced the Greeks).
            The practice of celibacy does not appear in the Old Testament. Epicurus (341-270 BCE) advocated celibacy. He taught that it is better for the wise man not to marry: “Nor, again, will the wise man marry and rear a family; so Epicurus says in the Problems and in De Natura. Occasionally he may marry owing to special circumstances in his life.” Celibacy was practiced by the initiates of the Greek mystery religions before the common era. The Essenes of Qumran borrowed this practice from the mystery religions. Pliny mentions the ascetic community at Qumran: “On the west side of the Dead Sea, but out of the range of the noxious exhalations of the coast, is the solitary tribe of the Essenes ... it has no women and has renounced all sexual desire, has no money, and has palm trees for company.” Many Essenes abstained from marriage and sex. This fact is mentioned by Philo and Josephus. Philo, erroneously wrote the all Essenes avoid marriage: “they repudiate marriage ... no Essene ever marries a wife.” Josephus wrote that some Essenes marry: “There is another order of Essenes who ... differ from ... {the rest} in the point of marriage.” (Josephus’ report is supported by the Essene documents.) He also wrote that those who abstain from sex and marriage “do not absolutely deny the fitness of marriage.” 

The Influence of the Neopythagoreans on the Essenes

            Pythagoras (ca. 580 to 500 BCE) was the founder of Pythagoreanism. He did not leave any writings. He taught the immortality and transmigration of the soul. Diodorus wrote, “Pythagoras of Samos and some others of the ancient philosophers declared that the souls of men are immortal, and also that, in accordance with this doctrine, souls foreknow the future at that moment in death when they are departing from the bodies.” The ultimate goal of Pythagoreanism was to bring its initiates into closer contact with God. During the early Hellenistic period Pythagoreanism was not widespread. Only certain individuals or small groups preserved the Pythagorean beliefs and way of life. However, in the 1st century BCE appeared many Pythagorean writings and caused a revival of interest in Pythagoreanism. The religion became Neopythagoreanism, which emphasized the transmigration of the soul. They believed that the original home of the soul was in the stars. From there it fell down to earth and associated with the body. Thus, man was a stranger on the earth, and he had to strive to liberate himself from the ties of the flesh and return to the soul’s celestial home. The spirit of a person rising from the grave and going to the stars was not a new belief. Pythagoras adopted it from the Egyptians. As mentioned earlier, an Egyptian pyramid inscription addressed to King Pepi I (he ruled during the 6th dynasty, ca. 2345-2182 BCE), reads, “O Pepi, you have gone away {died} to become a spirit, to become powerful as a god ... among the spirits, the Imperishable Stars.” The Neopythagoreans believed in the purification of the soul by ascetic practices. While the early Pythagoreans followed God, the Neopythagoreans strove to become like God. They shared several beliefs with the Greek mystery religions, particularly the Orphic religion. Like the Orphics, the Neopythagoreans abstained from animal sacrifices. Plutarch wrote, “... sacrifices, too, were altogether appropriate to the Pythagorean worship; for most of them involved no bloodshed but were made with flour, drink-offering ...”
            In the 1st century CE the Neopythagorean movement grew. In the middle of the 1st century CE it became quite popular. It was headed by Apollonius of Tyana (in Asia Minor). The Essenes adopted the Neopythagorean ways. There are indications that the Qumran sect made use of Pythagorean numerology. Josephus stated that they “observed the same way of life as those whom the Greeks call Pythagoreans.”
            The Pythagorean community was known for its communal living and sharing. Before a candidate could be accepted as a full member of the community he was required to undergo a period of rigorous and extended probation. Hippolytus, Bishop of Portus (born ca. 170--died ca. 235 CE) wrote, “... whenever one ... {desired} becoming his {Pythagoras’} follower, [the candidate for disciple was compelled] to sell his possessions, and lodge the money sealed with Pythagoras, and he continued in silence to undergo instruction, sometimes for three, but sometimes for five years. And again, on being released, he was permitted to associate with the rest {of Pythagoras’ disciples}, and remained as a disciple, and took his meals along with them; if otherwise, however, he received back his property, and was rejected. These persons, then, were styled Esoteric Pythagoreans, whereas, the rest, Pythagoristae.” The Essenes copied this practice. Diogenes Laertius (3rd Century CE) wrote about the Pythagoreans, “According to Timaeus {4th Century BCE}, he {Pythagoras} was the first to say, ‘Friends have all things in common’ and ‘Friendship is equality’; indeed, his disciples did put all their possessions into one common stock. For five whole years they had to keep silence, merely listening to his discourses without seeing him {because he lectured at night}, until they passed an examination, and thence forward they were admitted to his house and allowed to see him. ... so we are informed by Hermippus in his second book On Pythagoras.” At the time of the initiation the candidate had to take a solemn oath not to reveal the Pythagorean doctrines. The esoteric Pythagoreans dressed in white garments (symbolizing purity). Diogenes Laertius, wrote, “We should not pay equal worship to gods and heroes, but to gods always {pay greater worship to gods}, with reverent silence, in white robes ...” He also wrote, “His {Pythagoras’} robe was white and spotless ...” The esoteric Pythagoreans followed a strict daily regimen that included meditation, prayer, and a community meal. They placed great emphasis on purificatory rites, such as a daily bath (a primitive ritual of baptism).
            Like the Pythagoreans, the Essenes of Qumran put all their possessions into one common stock: “... his wealth and his property will be conveyed to the ... Custodian of Property of the Many ... ” (1QS 6:19-20 ) Like the Pythagoreans, they renounced the world: “They will separate from the congregation of the men of falsehood and will unite, with respect to Law and possessions, under the authority of the sons of Zadok {the Zadokites}, the Priests who keep the Covenant, and of the multitude of the men of the Community ...” (1QS 5:2)
            Like the Pythagoreans, the Essenes abstained from the public sacrifices at the Jerusalem temple. Josephus wrote, “... they send what they have dedicated to God to the temple, they do not offer {public} sacrifices ... they are excluded from the common court of the temple, but they offer their sacrifices themselves.” Josephus’ description of the Essenes is probably reliable even though his claim to have had first-hand knowledge of them is unreliable. Archaeologists did not find a trace of an altar at Qumran. However, the altar of Qumran may have been destroyed or been made from earth that did not survive. (Earth altars were acceptable to God.) There is evidence that the Essenes offered their own sacrifices at their community site. Archaeologists found some burned animal bones meticulously buried in jars at Qumran, perhaps the leftovers from sacrifices. The “ram of the sin-offering”  is mentioned in the Damascus Document as an offering to atone for any object obtained unlawfully. It also says, “Let no man offer up a burnt offering on the altar on the Sabbath, except for the Sabbath burnt offering ... Let no man send to the altar a burnt offering or a cereal offering or frankincense ...” (Damascus Document 11:17-20) Like the Pythagoreans, the Essenes kept silence, they followed a strict daily regimen that included meditation, prayer, and a community meal.
            Here are the similarities between the Pythagoreans and the Essenes of Qumran: 1. They practiced a regimented communal life. 2. They owned all their belongings in common. 3. They had a solemn initiation and prohibited taking oaths (swearing). 4. They wore white garments. 5. They seemed to have paid special honor (not worship) to the sun. 6. It is likely that the calendar used in Qumran originated with the Pythagoreans. 7. There are indications that the Qumran sect made use of Pythagorean numerology.
            Pythagorean influence is evident in the New Testament. Plutarch wrote, “... the Pythagoreans ... if ever they were led by anger to recrimination, never let the sun go down before they joined right hands, embraced each other, and were reconciled.” Paul wrote, “Let not the sun go down upon your wrath.” (Ephesians 4:26 KJV)

How the Greeks Transformed the Beliefs of the Pharisees

            The Pharisaic sect is a product of the Hellenistic era. Even though they practiced the rituals of the law, the Pharisees abandoned some fundamental beliefs of pre-exilic Judaism. Josephus described  described the Pharisaic beliefs: “They also, believe, that souls have an immortal vigor in them, and that under the earth there will be rewards and punishments, according as they have lived virtuously or viciously in this life; and the latter are to be detained in an everlasting prison, but the former will have power to revive and live again.” It is important to note that Josephus did not say or imply that the Pharisaic beliefs came from the Old Testament. Hippolytus (ca. 170 to ca. 235 CE), wrote that the Pharisees believed, “that the wicked will endure everlasting punishment in unquenchable fire.” The Pharisees did not obtain the belief of rewards and punishments under the earth from the Old Testament. They did not obtain it from Jesus, either. They held this belief before Jesus was born. Josephus wrote, “The Pharisees ... follow the way of reason.” The Greek philosophers led the way to reason and the Pharisees followed. They had an affinity to the Stoics.
            Most Pharisees believed that they could earn eternal life by obeying the law. They believed that God will re-establish the kingdom of Israel and will resurrect the dead (a physical resurrection). Then the New Age will begin, where the Jews will rule over the world. But, Josephus indicates that s  some Pharisees believed in reincarnation : “They {the Pharisees} say all souls are incorruptible, but that souls of good men only are removed into other bodies, but that souls of bad men are subject to eternal punishment.” Josephus also wrote, “Their souls {the souls of the righteous} are pure and obedient, and receive a most holy place in heaven, from where, in revolution of ages, they are again sent into pure bodies.”
            As mentioned earlier, several Greek mystery religions advocated celibacy. Epiphanius mentions (he wrote at about 374 CE) that some Pharisees practiced celibacy: “For the Pharisees ... some of them ... set themselves to practice virginity {celibacy} or continence for ten or eight or four years ...” As mentioned earlier, toward the end of the first century CE, Josephus boasted that the Jews observed the mysteries and the things taught in the solemn ceremonies of the Greek mystery religions better than the Gentiles.
            Before the turn of the Era and during the 1st century CE Judaism was going through a major transformation. One of the causes of this transformation was the popular belief in eternal life (eternal happiness). It was in great demand and the mystery religions offered it. But the Sadducees (and the Samaritans) did not jump on the bandwagon of eternal life. They remained faithful to pre-exilic Judaism. Josephus wrote, “But the doctrine of the Sadducees is this: That the souls die with the bodies ... but this doctrine is received but by a few, yet by those still of the greatest dignity.”  Their belief was unpopular. For this reason they were very few and their movement disappeared. After the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (70 CE) they disappeared from the religious scene of Judaism. We have little information about them because their beliefs were unpopular.

Note: The book contains over 2,500 footnotes (quotations and references), which explain or document the facts presented. Those footnotes are not included in most excerpts presented in this web site. 

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